I. FUNCTIONS 
     A. monitors changes internally & externally 
     B. integration: interpretes the input and makes decisions 
     C. responds to input by activating effectors (muscles & glands) 

     II. ORGANIZATION 

     A. Central Nervous System (CNS) 
          1. consists of two parts 
               a. brain 
               b. spinal cord 
          2. responsible for integration; impulses are sent to the CNS, which decides what to do and sends instructions to the effectors 

     B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 
          1. consists of two types of nerves 
               a. cranial - extend directly from the brain 
               b. spinal - extend from the spinal cord to the rest of the body 
          2. can be divided into two areas: PNS -> CNS nerves, and CNS -> PNS nerves 
               a. sensory (afferent) division - carries impulses from the receptors to the CNS 
                    i. somatic - stimuli comes from the skin, skeletal muscles, etc. 
                    ii. visceral - stimuli comes from the internal organs 
               b. motor (efferent) division - carries impulses from the CNS to effectors 
                    i. somatic - voluntary control of skeletal muscles 
                    ii. autonomic - involuntary control of cardiac & smooth muscles, glands 
                        1. sympathetic division - activates the "fight or flight"response 
                        2. parasympathetic division - returns the body to normal conditions 

     III. HISTOLOGY OF NERVOUS TISSUE 

     A. supporting cells - located around the neurons 
          1. neuroglia (glial cells) - supporting cells in the CNS 
               a. astrocytes - star-shaped and abundant; they connect the capillaries & the nerves 
               b. microglia - oval with thorny processes; help eliminate infections & dead tissue 
               c. ependymal cells - lining of the cerebrospinal cavities; cilia move the fluid around 
               d. oligodendrocytes - form myeline sheaths to insulate nerves 
          2. supporting cells in the PNS 
               a. satellite cells - control the chemical environment 
               b. Schwann cells - form myelin sheaths around axons 
     B. neurons (nerve cells) 
          1. live a long time (your entire lifetime, if they stay healthy) 
          2. they cannot reproduce (they're amitotic); once they're gone, they're gone 
          3. high metabolic rate; so they use a lot of glucose & oxygen 
          4. there are several features of a neuron 
               a. cell body - contains the nucleus 
               b. dendrites - short extensions from the cell body 
               c. axon - long extension from the cell body; covered with a myelin sheath created by Schwann cells; in-between each Schwann cell is a node of Ranvier 
          5. neurons can be classified by their structure 
               a. multipolar - have 3+ processes; the most common type; some have no axon 
               b. bipolar - have 2 processes; rare in adults, though found in the eye & nose 
               c. unipolar - have 1 process 
          6. neurons can be classified by their function 
               a. sensory (afferent) neurons - pick up stimuli 
               b. motor (efferent) neurons - carry responses to effectors (muscles & glands) 
               c. associative neurons (interneurons) - take the impulse from the sensory neurons, decides what to do about it, and sends the response to the motor neurons 

     IV. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY 

     A. basic principles of electricity 
          1. the difference in two voltages is called the potential 
          2. in the body, electrical charges are provided by ions 
     B. resting membrane potential 
          1. a resting neuron has an internal potential of about -70mV 
          2. the potential is due to the difference in the sodium and potassium ion concentrations inside & outside of the cell 
     C. membrane potentials that act as signals 
          1. a graded potential is a small, brief potential change that acts as a short-distance signal 
          2. an action potential, or nerve impulse, is a large, brief depolarization signal 
               a. it is an all-or-none phenomenon; strong stimuli can lead to more signals but with the same amplitude 
               b. depolarization is when the inner membrane becomes less negative (more positive) 
               c. the movement of the nerve impulse is the depolarization area moving down the nerve 
               d. a nerve threshold must be reached before the action potential is generated 
               e. there is a refractory period, which is a resting time when the impulse cannot be propagated 
          3. nerves can be classified as A, B, or C; the classification is based on 3 things 
               a. diameter of the nerve fiber 
               b. degree of myelination of the nerve fiber 
               c. speed of conduction 
     D. synapse - the junction between two neurons 
          1. electrical synapses - allow ions to flow directly from one neuron to another 
          2. chemical synapses - when an impulse reaches the end of an axon, calcium ions cause neurotransmitter to be released; the neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to the next neuron and initiate the impulse 
     E. neurotransmitters - chemicals that jump across synapses to carry nerve impulses 
          1. can be classified by chemical structure 
               a. acetylcholine - released at neuromusclular junctions to stimulate muscles 
               b. biogenic amines - example: norepinephrine, a "feeling good" neurotransmitter 
               c. amino acids 
               d. peptides - example: endorphin, which acts as a natural pain killer 
          2. can be classified by function 
               a. they can be inhibitory or excitatory (or both) 
                    i. inhibitory - stop movement of an impulse 
                    ii. excitatory - increase movement of an impulse 
               b. they can be direct or indirect 
                    i. direct - cause channel opening 
                    ii. indirect - act through second messangers 

The Central Nervous System 

     I) THE BRAIN 

     A. The brain is composed of four basic parts 
          1. cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres) 
          2. diencephalon 
               a. thalamus 
               b. hypothalamus 
               c. epithalamus 
          3. brain stem 
               a. midbrain 
               b. pons 
               c. medulla 
          4. cerebellum 
     B. Ventricle 
          1. A ventricle is a cavity in the brain. 
          2. They are lined with ependymal cells. 
          3. They are filled with cerebrospinal fluid. 
          4. There are several ventricles. 
               a. lateral (1st & 2nd) ventricle - C-shaped chambers, one in each cerebral hemisphere 
               b. third ventricle - is a thin chamber in the center of the brain (in the diencephalon) 
               c. fourth ventricle - extends down into the brain stem to the spinal cord 

     C. The brain has distinct features, specifically lobes, fissures, and functional areas. 
          1. Lobes 
               a. frontal 
               b. parietal 
               c. occipital 
               d. temporal 
          2. Fissures 
               a. longitudinal - separates the cerebrum into right and left cerebral hemispheres 
               b. transverse - separates the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum below 
          3. Functional areas 
              a. Motor areas 
                    i. primary motor cortex 
                         1. in the frontal lobe 
                         2. controls voluntary movement of muscles 
                    ii. premotor cortex 
                         1. in the frontal lobe 
                         2. controls repetitive or patterned movements 
                    iii. Broca's area 
                         1. in the frontal lobe of one hemisphere, usually the left 
                         2. directs muscles of speech 
                         3. may be involved in thinking before we speak or move 
                    iv. frontal eye field 
                         1. in front of the premotor cortex and above Broca's area 
                         2. controls voluntary movement of the eye 
               b. Sensory areas 
                    i. primary somatosensory cortex 
                         1. in the parietal lobe 
                         2. receives sensory information from the body 
                    ii. somatosensory association area 
                         1. behind the somatosensory cortex 
                         2. integrates and analyzes sensory inputs into an evaluation of what is being felt relative to its size, texture, and the relationship of its parts 
                    iii. visual areas 
                         1. in the occipital lobe 
                         2. interpretes visual input (sight) 
                    iv. auditory area 
                         1. in the temporal lobe 
                         2. interpretes auditory input (hearing) 
                    v. olfactory cortex 
                         1. in the temporal lobe 
                         2. interpretes smells 
                    vi. gustatory (taste) cortex 
                         1. located in the parietal lobe, deep to the temporal lobe 
                         2. interpretes tastes 
               c. Association areas 
                    i. prefrontal cortex 
                         1. in the frontal lobe 
                         2. involved with intellect, complex learning abilities, and personality 
                    ii. general interpretation area 
                         1. a vague region in the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes 
                         2. appears to be a storage site for complex memory patterns associated with sensations 
                         3. allows you to interprete an entire situation 
                    iii. language areas 
                         1. Wernicke's area 
                         2. affective language areas 
                    iv. visceral association area 
                         1. conscious interpretation of internal sensations 
                         2. examples include an upset stomach, a full bladder, etc. 

     D. Diencephalon 
          1. The diencephalon is the central core of the brain. 
          2. It consists of three parts, which surround the 3rd ventricle. 
               a. thalamus 
                    i. makes up 80% of the diencephalon 
                    ii. it is a major relay station 
                         1. sensory impulses ascending to the sensory cortex 
                         2. inputs of subcortical motor nuclei and the cerebellum to the cerebral motor cortex 
               b. hypothalamus 
                    i. an autonomic nervous system control center 
                    ii. an important part of the limbic system; it is the center for emotional response and behavior 
                    iii. it regulates water balance and thirst 
                    iv. it regulates body tempurature 
                    v. it regulates food intake 
                    vi. it regulates the sleep-wake cycles 
                    vii. it controls the functioning of the endocrine system 
               c. epithalamus 
                    i. consists of the pineal gland and the choroid plexus of the 3rd ventricle 
                         1. pineal gland - which secretes melatonin, helps regulated the sleep-wake cycle, and relates to some aspects of mood 
                         2 . choroid plexus - a cerebrospinal fluid-forming structure 

     E. Brain Stem: 3 major regions 
          1. midbrain 
               a. corpora quadrigemina 
                    i. superior colliculi - visual reflex centers 
                    ii. inferior colliculi - auditory relay and reflex centers 
               b. red nucleus - relay nuclei iii. nuclei of cranial nerves III and IV 
          2. pons 
               a. mainly a conduction area 
               b. its nuclei help regulate the respiration and cranial nerves V-VII 
          3. medulla 
               a. nuclei regulate respiratory rhythm, heart rate and blood pressure 
               b. serves cranial nerves VIII-XII 
               c. controls coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting 

     F. Cerebellum 
          1. Structure 
               a. the cerebellum consists of 2 hemispheres 
               b. it is marked by convolutions and separated by the vermix 
          2. Function 
               a. it processes and interpretes impulses from the motor cortex and sensory pathways 
               b. it coordinates motor activity so that smooth, well-timed movements occur 

     G. Limbic system 
          1. consists of numerous structures that encircle the diencephalon 
          2. it is the "emotional-visceral brain" 

     H. Reticular formation 
          1. includes the nuclei spanning the length of the brain stem 
          2. it maintains the alert state of the cerebral cortex 
          3. its motor nuclei serve both somatic and visceral motor activities 

     I. Protection of the CNS 
          1. Bone 
          2. Meninges - three membrane layers that surround the brain and spinal cord 
               a. dura mater - the outermost layer 
               b. arachnoid mater 
               c. pia mater - the innermost layer 
          3. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 
               a. formed by the choroid plexuses from blood plasma 
               b. circulates through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space 
               c. it supports and cushions the brain & spinal cord and helps to nourish them 
          4. Blood-brain barrier - the epithelium of the capillaries of the brain is relatively impermeable 

     J. Injuries to the brain 
          1. concussion 
               a. reversible damage 
               b. the injury is slight 
               c. it may be characterized by dizziness, "seeing stars", or brief loss of consciousness 
          2. contusion 
               a. nonreversible damage 
               b. tissue is destroyed 

     K. Cerebrovascular accidents (strokes) 
          1. Result when blood circulation to the brain neurons is blocked and brain tissue dies 
          2. Can result in hemiplegia, sensory deficits, or speech impairment 

     L. Alzheimer's disease 
         1. a degenerative brain disease 
          2. causes slow, progressive loss of memory and motor control and increasing dementia 

     II. THE SPINAL CORD 

     A. Gross anatomy 
          1. the spinal cord, wrapped in meninges and cerebrospinal fluid, resides within the vertebral column 
          2. the cord goes from the foramen magnum down to the end of the first lumbar vertebrae 
          3. an average person's cord is 42 cm (17") long and 1.8 cm (3/4") thick
          4. 31 pairs of spinal nerve roots extend from the cord 

     B. Microscopic anatomy 
          1. the central gray matter of the cord is H shaped 
               a. anterior horns (extensions) contain somatic motor neurons 
               b. lateral horns contain visceral (autonomic) motor neurons 
               c. posterior horns contain associative neurons (interneurons) 
          2. the outside layer of the cord is white matter 
               a. it contains myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers 
               b. these fibers run in 3 directions 
                    i. ascending - sensory inputs moving up 
                    ii. descending - motor outputs moving down 
                    iii. commissural - from one side of the cord to the other 
               c. each side of the white matter has 3 columns (funiculi) 
                    i. posterior funiculi 
                    ii. lateral funiculi 
                    iii. anterior funicui 
               d. each funiculi contains paired tracts of ascending and descending nerve tracts 
                    i. ascending (sensory) tracts 
                         1. fasciculi gracilis and cuneatus - touch & joint proprioception 
                         2. spinothalamic tracts - pain, touch, temperature 
                         3. spinocerebellar tracts - muscle/tendon proprioception 
                    ii. descending (motor) tracts 
                         1. pyramidal tracts 
                         2. motor tracts 

     III. DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES FOR THE CNS 

     A. Several techniques are used to diagnose brain disorders 
          1. routine reflex testing (ie. hitting the knee with a mallet to check a reflex) 
          2. pneumoencephalography - cerebrospinal fluid is withdrawn and the ventricles filled with air, allowing them to be visualized easier 
          3. cerebral angiography - a dye is injected into the blood vessels so that they can be seen in an X- ray 
          4. CT, MRI, PET scans - imaging techniques that allow us to see internal structures 

The Peripheral Nervous System & Reflex Activity 

     I. Peripheral Nervous System 

          A. sensory receptors 
          B. peripheral nerves & their associated ganglia 
          C. efferent motor endings 

     II. Sensory Receptors 

          A. Classification by Location 
               1.exteroceptors - affected by stimuli from outside of the body 
               2. interoceptors (visceroceptors) - affected by stimuli inside the body 
               3. proprioceptors - respond to stimuli in the muscles, joints, and associated tissues 

          B. Classification by Stimulus Type 
               1. mechanoreceptors - respond to mechanical forces, such as  touch, pressure, vibrations, and stretching 
               2. thermoreceptors - respond to temperature 
               3. photoreceptors - respond to light 
               4. chemoreceptors - respond to chemicals, such as taste and smell 
               5. nociceptors - respond to pain 

          C. Classification by Structure 
               1. free denritic endings 
                    a. found in virtually all body tissues 
                    b. most numerous in the skin and connective tissues 
               2. encapsulated dendritic endings 
                    a. virtually all are mechanoreceptors 
                    b. they vary greatly in shape, size, and distribution 

     III. Nerves 

          A. cordlike organ that is part of the peripheral nervous system 
               1. they vary in size 
               2. they consist of bundles of peripheral nerve axons 
               3. each axon is surrounded by a membrane called endoneurium 
               4. each bundle of axons (a fascicle) is surrounded by a membrane called perineurium 
               5. all of the fascicles are surrounded by a membrane called epineurium 
          B. there are three basic types of nerves 
               1. sensory (afferent) nerves carry impulses from the PNS to the CNS 
               2. motor (efferent) nerves carry impulses from the CNS to the PNS
               3. mixed nerves, the most common type, have a combination of sensory and motor neurons 
          C. Ganglia - a bundle of cell bodies of peripheral nerves 

     IV. Cranial Nerves 

          A. the cranial nerves go directly from the brain to a part of the body 
          B. there are 12 sets of cranial nerves, which often go by their Roman numeral 
               I. olfactory - for smell 
               II. optic - for vision 
               III. oculomoter - for eye movement 
               IV. trochlear - for eye movement 
               V. trigeminal - for face movement and chewing muscles 
               VI. abducens - abducts the eyeball 
               VII. facial - goes to the face muscles 
               VIII. vestibulocochlear - for hearing 
               IX. glossopharyngeal - goes to the tongue & pharynx 
               X. vagus - goes to internal organs in the torso 
               XI. accessory - helps the vagus nerve 
               XII. hypoglossal - goes to the tongue 

     V. Plexux 

          A. a nerve plexus is a network of converging and/or diverging nerves 
          B. there are several major nerve plexuses in the body 
               1. cervical - in the neck 
               2. brachial - in the shoulder 
               3. lumbar - in the lumbar to hip region 
               4. sacral - in the sacral to upper thigh region 

     VI. Reflex Activity 

          A. reflexes are rapid, predictable motor responses to a stimuli 
          B. reflexes are classified functionally 
               1. somatic reflexes - activate skeletal muscles 
               2. autonomic (visceral) reflexes - activate smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, or glands